Mathematically, p-1 is a prime factor used when factoring a number so that its geometric mean equals 1. It can also be found when factoring large numbers as long as their geometric mean equals 1.
Williams’ p+1 algorithm is an integer factorization method using Lucas sequences for exponentiation. It works best if N needs to be factored has a smooth p+1 value.
Definition
Unprime factors of numbers can also be described as divisors of p or the number of factors divisible by p; they can also serve as starting points when searching for prime factors of more significant numbers and can be discovered using brute force or graphic methods.
In statistical research, the p-value indicates the likelihood that any apparent relationship between two variables could be due to random chance. When comparing results across studies, it’s essential to establish whether there’s an actual difference or all variations are likely the result of the event alone – the p-value calculation helps researchers decide if their observations are meaningful or insignificant.
U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (USCIS) defines a P-1B entertainment group as any group composed of members engaged in international performances that are recognized internationally, such as athletes, artists, or entertainers. Members must demonstrate they have had a sustained and substantial relationship with their entertainment group for at least a year, providing functions integral to its performance.
P-1B petitions may be filed for noncitizens invited to perform as part of an entertainment group in the US. This may include athletes, artists, and entertainers recognized internationally as excelling at their discipline over an extended period; this visa does not apply to backup singers and musicians as these would fall into the O-2 nonimmigrant classification.
In computer science, the P-1 algorithm (also known as Williams’s P-1) is an integer factorization method using Lucas sequences for factorization. It is an efficient way of quickly finding prime factors of large numbers, particularly useful when searching for large sets. As an alternative to Pollard’s p-1 algorithm, it often proves faster when working with numbers above 100000000.
Examples
Prime factorization of large numbers is computationally intensive, but multiple algorithms can alleviate this difficulty. One method divides it by the product of many prime numbers; another identifies multiples that are divisible by each prime and removes them from consideration; finally, remaining multiples may be factored by an algorithm with a sequence of cyclotomic polynomials starting with Ph1(p) and going all the way up to Ph2(p) + p-1 polynomials.
P-1 athletes are defined as competitive athletes who have become internationally acclaimed. Athletes may demonstrate this internationally-recognized status through two means. One approach is through professional sports teams in leagues; alternatively, by participating in high-level competitions and fulfilling two of seven evidentiary criteria – where expert and governing body statements play a critical role; an experienced attorney can craft these documents to maximize effectiveness without potentially harming any competitor’s reputation.
Athleticians qualifying through the second method must demonstrate they have been internationally recognized for at least a year to receive an extension of their stay, which only lasts until a competition, event, or performance that the USCIS determines to require their services. Under the P-1B subcategory, essential support personnel may enter the U.S. to perform services that cannot readily be provided by local workers but which are critical for the successful performance of a P-1 entertainer or athletic team, each of whom will require their own I-129 petition submission to USCIS for entry.
Formulas
As previously discussed, p-1 is the probability that a test statistic observed from your sample will equal or be lower than what would have been expected under a null hypothesis. It’s calculated using sampling distribution of your test statistic with actual sample data from your actual samples – this formula can usually be found within statistical software like SPSS or Excel. The P-value (or probability value) determines whether or not null hypotheses will be accepted.
If the p-value exceeds the significance level (predetermined threshold set by the researcher), you will reject the null hypothesis; otherwise, it will be accepted. Various tests and types of data can be utilized; calculations differ slightly for each, yet the results tend to be interpreted similarly.
One standard formula involving p is the simple interest formula, which can be found by consulting either your exam sitting’s syllabus or an exam formula sheet (Coaching Actuaries and ACTEX both offer such sheets; I believe TIA may as well). With such an easy formula/literal equation to memorize quickly on any Exam P question asking to calculate interest, remembering it should not prove difficult.
The basic idea here is to divide your principal amount by its interest rate to determine how long it will take you to earn that sum, then multiply this number by 1/100 to get an interest rate, which you can plug into a calculator or spreadsheet and see exactly how much money will come in during that period.
Applications
The P visa is intended for internationally-recognized athletes, entertainers, and cultural coaches who meet specific requirements to qualify for this US non-immigrant visa. Individual applicants or teams must fulfill particular criteria for one of these non-immigrant visas.
Individuals requesting P-1 visas must demonstrate that their level of skill and recognition in their field exceeds what is usually encountered, with P-1 permits typically granted for the time necessary to complete an event, competition, or performance and may be extended in one-year increments based on the schedule of planned activities. Group applications will have their initial validity determined based on the planned activities schedule.
Un applicant for a P-1 visa must possess both a valid passport from their home country and documentation from an approved labor organization demonstrating they meet the qualifications needed to perform activities they have been selected to carry out. They also need an established residence abroad that they do not intend to leave, documentation detailing the events for which their sponsor plans to use this visa, and anticipated performance dates.
Sports athletes and entertainers wishing to apply for a P-1 visa must first have been offered employment by a US employer or organization that can pay their travel expenses, filing an I-129 Petition for Non-Immigrant Worker and supporting documentation.
Groups must submit formal exchange agreements between the US and foreign entities and international recognition as having attained high levels of achievement for an extended period. An initial P-1S visa validity period can be extended up to 10 years.
Support personnel eligible to be hired under a P-1S visa include coaches, assistant coaches, trainers, scouts, nutritionists, and tour managers. The length and ability to extend this visa depend on each applicant’s category.